What is message passing ? Describe with example.

 

class rectangle 

{

    public:

        void area(int l, int b)

        {

            cout<<"area="<< a;

        }

};

void main()

{

    rectangle r1;

    r1.area(10,5); //example of message passing

}

What sorts of shortcomings of structure are addressed by classes? Explain giving appropriate example.

 We know that structure is a collection of heterogeneous data elements under a common name. It is a convenient tool for handling a group of logically related data items. It is a user-defined data type with a template that serves to define its data properties. Although structure is a user-defined data type, but it has some limitations.

    Class is a collection of data members and member function bundled together as a unit. Using class, encapsulation as well as data hiding has been possible. Similarly, inheritance and polymorphism has been possible due to class. So, it is the more advanced data structure than the structure of C and it has been removed the drawbacks of the structure. The main drawbacks of structure of Care as follows:

• The standard C does not allow the struct data type to be treated like built-in data types. For example

            struct complex

            {

                float real;

                float imaginary;

            };

        struct c1,c2,c3;

        c3=c1+c2;

               The member variable of structure 'complex' can easily be assigned values using the                 dot(.) operator, but we cannot add two complex numbers or subtract one from the                     other. So, c3=c1+c2 or c3=c1-c2 both are illegal in C.

            But, in C++, we can design a complex class and add or subtract them using + or-                        operator by the help of polymorphism. For example:

          class complex

        {

            private:

                    float real;

                    float imaginary;

            public:

                    complex operator+(operator);

                    complex(float, float);

          }

        Complex c1.c2,c3;

        C3=c1+c2;

• Another important limitation of C structure is that they do not permit data hiding. Structure members can be directly accessed by the structure variables by any function anywhere in their scope. So, structure members are public members.

           For example:

            The data members of the structure can be easily accessed by the structure variable in                any part of the program such as c1.real, c1.imaginary even from the 'main()' function                but the data members of the class cannot be accessed directly outside their member                function. So, c1.real or c1.imaginary is not allowed directly in the 'main()' function of             the program.

• Another limitation of structure is that the member of one structure cannot be transferred to the another structure but 'class' of COP has solved this limitation so that the features of one class can be easily transferred to another class by means of inheritance.

C++ Old Question Solution

What makes the OOP better than POP? Explain with features of OOP.

Solution:

POP stands for 'Procedural Oriented Programming' which is the conventional programming approach. In POP, the entire program is viewed as a sequence of things to be done such as taking input, calculating and printing and the entire program is divided into smaller programs known as function and it gives more emphasis to function.

Object-oriented programming is the most recent concept in computer programming paradigms and it has been defined as "an approach that provides a way of modularizing programs by creating partitioned memory area for both data and functions that can be used as templates for creating copies of such modules on demand".

Being the recent programming approach, OOP offers several benefits than POP approach and some of the most important benefits are as follows:

• In OOP, through inheritance, we can eliminate redundant code and extend the use of existing classes.
• Due to the uses of class, encapsulation is possible so that the necessary data members and the necessary member function for these data members can be wrapped inside the single unit called 'class' 
• By using the proper access specifier like 'private' or 'protected', data can be hidden so that only the required member function can access them.
• In OOP, polymorphism is possible so that we can use the same operator or function to perform the various types of operations. For example, the operator can be used to find the sum of any two numeric values as well as to combine two string, Like 10+30 or "wel"+"come".
• We can build programs from the standard working modules that communicate with one another, rather than having to start writing the code from scratch. This leads to saving of development time and higher productivity.
• The principle of data ding helps the programmer to build secure programs that cannot be invaded by code in offer parts of the program.
• It is easy to partition the work in a project based on objects.
• Objected oriented system can be easily upgraded from small to large system.
• Message passing technique for communication between objects makes the interface description with external systems much simpler.
• Software complexity can be easily managed.

The constructors can't declared as virtual but the destructors can be declared as virtual. Why?

solution:

The virtual keyword is used in C++ when we need dynamic behavior. It will work only when objects exists where constructors are used to create objects. Constructors will be call at the time of object creation.So if we define the constructor as virtual,it should have existing object to use. But the object is created at the time of constructor call. Thus this is contradictory.
Again we can't override the constructor,when any method is declared as virtual,it should be overridden in its derived class. Since constructor is used for initializing variables of a class and it can be defined only within the class ,it can't be overridden. Thus the constructor can't be declared as virtual. We can use virtual destructor because, at the time of calling destructor,we have the objects .So we can use virtual keyword for the destructors.

What sorts of shortcomings of structure are addressed by classes? Explain giving appropriate example.

Solution:

 We know that structure is a collection of heterogeneous data elements under a common name. It is a convenient tool for handling a group of logically related data items. It is a user-defined data type with a template that serves to define its data properties. Although structure is a user-defined data type, but it has some limitations.

    Class is a collection of data members and member function bundled together as a unit. Using class, encapsulation as well as data hiding has been possible. Similarly, inheritance and polymorphism has been possible due to class. So, it is the more advanced data structure than the structure of C and it has been removed the drawbacks of the structure. The main drawbacks of structure of Care as follows:

• The standard C does not allow the struct data type to be treated like built-in data types. For example

            struct complex

            {

                float real;

                float imaginary;

            };

        struct c1,c2,c3;

        c3=c1+c2;

               The member variable of structure 'complex' can easily be assigned values using                       the dot(.) operator, but we cannot add two complex numbers or subtract one from                     the other. So, c3=c1+c2 or c3=c1-c2 both are illegal in C.

            But, in C++, we can design a complex class and add or subtract them using + or-                   operator by the help of polymorphism. For example:

          class complex

        {

            private:

                    float real;

                    float imaginary;

            public:

                    complex operator+(operator);

                    complex(float, float);

          }

        Complex c1.c2,c3;

        C3=c1+c2;

• Another important limitation of C structure is that they do not permit data hiding. Structure members can be directly accessed by the structure variables by any function anywhere in their scope. So, structure members are public members.

           For example:

            The data members of the structure can be easily accessed by the structure variable                  in any part of the program such as c1.real, c1.imaginary even from the 'main()'                         function but the data members of the class cannot be accessed directly outside their                 member function. So, c1.real or c1.imaginary is not allowed directly in the 'main()'                     function of the program.

• Another limitation of structure is that the member of one structure cannot be transferred to the another structure but 'class' of COP has solved this limitation so that the features of one class can be easily transferred to another class by means of inheritance.

What is message passing ? Describe with example.

Solution:

class rectangle 

{

    public:

        void area(int l, int b)

        {

            cout<<"area="<< a;

        }

};

void main()

{

    rectangle r1;

    r1.area(10,5); //example of message passing

}

The constructors can't declared as virtual but the destructors can be declared as virtual.why?

solution:
The virtual keyword is used in C++ when we need dynamic behavior. It will work only when objects exists where constructors are used to create objects. Constructors will be call at the time of object creation.So if we define the constructor as virtual,it should have existing object to use. But the object is created at the time of constructor call. Thus this is contradictory.
Again we can't override the constructor,when any method is declared as virtual,it should be overridden in its derived class. Since constructor is used for initializing variables of a class and it can be defined only within the class ,it can't be overridden. Thus the constructor can't be declared as virtual. We can use virtual destructor because, at the time of calling destructor,we have the objects .So we can use virtual keyword for the destructors.

Class and Objcet

 

class and object:

class:

• 1.       a class is a way to bind data and associated function together.
• 2.       it allows data and function to hidden if necessary for external use.
• 3.       defining a class means creating a user defined data type that behaves as built in data.
• 4.       once a class has been declared we can create any number of object belonging to that class.

syntax:

class class_name

{

private:

data member;

member function;

public:

data member;

member function;

};          //end of class

 

Generally data are placed in private section and function are placed in public section.

• 5.       class contains both data and function . Data are called data member and function are called member function.
• 6.       data and function are defined in private section are not accessible out of the class.
• 7.       data and function placed in public section are only accessible from outside the class.
• 8.       the word private is optional . the data in function of class by default private.

Object:

An object is an instance of a class.

For example, the Car class defines the model, brand, and mileage. Now, based on the definition, we can create objects like

Car suv;
Car sedan;
Car van;

Here, suv, sedan, and van are objects of the Car class. Hence, the basic syntax for creating objects is:

Class_Name object_name;

---

Example 1: Class and Objects in C++

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

class Car {

  public:

    // class data

    string brand, model;

    int mileage = 0;

    // class function to drive the car

    void drive(int distance) {

        mileage += distance;

    }

    

    // class function to print variables

    void show_data() {

        cout << "Brand: " << brand << endl;

        cout << "Model: " << model << endl;

        cout << "Distance driven: " << mileage << " miles" << endl;

    }

};

int main() {

    

    // create an object of Car class

    Car my_car;

    // initialize variables of my_car

    my_car.brand = "Honda";

    my_car.model = "Accord";

    my_car.drive(50);

    // display object variables

    my_car.show_data();

    return 0; 

}

Function Overloading

 

function overloading:

function overloading means using same function name to perform variety of task. But in function overloading we must consider two things. They are:

• 1.       Either the number of arguments in function should be different (the number of input to function should vary).
• 2.       if the number of arguments are same then the data type of the function arguments should be different number of parameter  different.

Note: return type has no role in function overloading

int sum(int a, int b)

{

return (a+b);

}

int sum(int a1, int b1, int c1)

{

return(a1+b1+c1);

}

int sum(int d)

{

return (d+5);

}

void main()

{

cout<<"The sum of one variable"<<sum(10)<<endl;

cout<<"The sum of two variable"<<sum(10,20)<<endl;

cout<<"The sum of three vriable"<<sum(10,20,30)<<endl;

getch();

}

Q. write a program to calculate the area of rectangle and triangle using concept of function overloading.

type II

#include<iostream.h>

#include<conio.h>

using namespace std;

int area(int l, int b)

{

return (l*b)

}

float area(int b, float h)

{

return (0.5*b*h);

}

void main()

{

int l1,b1;

float  h;

cout<<"Enter the value of l1,b1 & h1<<endl;

cin>>l1>>b1>>h1;

cout<<"The area of rectangle is <<area(l1,b1)<<endl;

cout<<"The area of triangle is<<area(l1,h1);

getch();

}

Object oriented programming in C++

Inline function: 

It is the function that is expanded inline when it is called with corresponding code. The syntax for making inline is inline return-type function-name(no arguments/arguments) 

Note:- inline function should always have return type.

Advantage: 

• It reduces the exception time of a program with function having fewer lines of codes.

Disadvantage: 

• The execution time of inline function is more than normal function if the function has the larger number of codes or more lines of code. 
• It does not work for the recursive course. 

For Example:

Syllabus

9-12 Computer Engineering Syllabus

Secondary Level School Curriculum (Technical and Vocational Stream) (Grade 9 - 12) Computer Engineering